Somalia: A Nation in Ruins

Today the world is composed of nearly one hundred ninety-two nations. It is unfortunate that many of these nations are plagued with conflict, some with each other, others within themselves, and then there are those nations that have both internal and external conflicts. Somalia is one such nation that has been torn apart due to its internal and external conflicts. All international decrees and laws state Somalia to be a unified nation from its independence. Regrettably this is not so in reality. The roots of Somali conflict are found in its oppression under foreign rule, the rise of ethnic nationalism at its independence, extreme loyalty of Somali citizens to their clans, and Somalia’s lack of true and balanced leadership. With the study of Somali history, future leaders and diplomats can better understand how conflicts flood to the surface. With the study of Somali issue we can better understand how to prevent and protect the citizens of the world from such disasters in the future.

Situated in eastern Africa, Somalia forms what is known to the world as “the Horn of Africa (LOC).” Bordering Somalia are Kenya in the south, Ethiopia in the west, Djibouti in the northwest, the Gulf of Aden in the north, and the Indian Ocean is on the east. Somalia covers an area of about 638,000 square kilometers, making it just a little smaller than Texas. The internationally accepted Somali capital is Mogadishu. Somalia is mostly a flat country. In the southern and central regions, near Ethiopia, the land raises to a few hundred meters above sea level. The higher land area is along the northern coast, where mountains rise to about 2,000 meters (CIA). Somalia has a long coastline of about 3,300 kilometers (CIA). This long coastline has been a key factor in its history of trade with the Middle East and other parts of Africa. (CIA)

The climate is a very important part of the Somali way of life. The climate is generally hot and dry all year-round. The climate of Somalia supports nomadic pastoralism, which is “a social and economic system based on the raising and herding of livestock (Bartleby.com).” More than half the population of Somalia practices nomadic pastoralism. Stable agriculture is practiced primarily in the northwest and in the inter river areas in the south. (CIA)

Somalia’s economy is mostly agricultural. It is based primarily on livestock and secondarily on crops. The CIA’s World Factbook reports that approximately 65% of the Somali GDP is agricultural, 25% service oriented, and 10% industrial. The few industries that Somalia has are in the form of light industries, sugar refining, textiles, petroleum refining, and wireless communications. (CIA)

Ethnically and culturally, Somalia is one of the most homogeneous countries in Africa. However, Somalia does have few minorities. There are people of Bantu descent living in farming villages in the south, and of Arab descent who are living along coastal cities. A small number of Europeans, mostly Italians, live on farms in the south. Most of the people are ethnic Somalis who speak dialects of the same Somali language. Most of these ethnically similar people also practice the same religion, Islam. (LOC)

The ethnic Somalis are divided by deeply rooted clan divisions. The Somalis are made up of six major clan-families. These are the Dir, Daarood, Isaaq, Hawiey, Digil, and Rahanwayn. The Dir, Daarood, Isaaq, Hawiey are predominantly pastoral and make up about 70% of the Somali population (LOC). The Digil and the Rahanwayn are mostly agricultural and are located mostly in the southern part of the nation. The Somali history is plagued with clan conflicts even though these clans share the same basic language, religion, and culture. The resolution to these conflicts has been the key issue when talking about stability in Somalia. (LOC)

The early history of Somalia can be traced back to the Arab sultanates in 11th and 12th centauries. However, Somalia’s modern history begins with the late 19th century, when the European powers began to trade and establish themselves in that region of Africa. The British gained control over northern Somalia around 1886 (LOC). The main British objectives centered on safeguarding trade links to the east and securing local sources of food and provisions for its vital coaling station in Aden. (LOC)

Another European power in the area was France. The French were in this region of the world because they needed to establish their position on the Red Sea coast to strengthen naval links with their Indo-China colonies. The French were also in the region in order to maintain the concept of the “Balance of Power.” This concept dominated European politics and diplomacy during this era. (LOC)

Another European nation in the region was Italy. Italy was the main colonizer in the southern region of Somalia. Italy acquired its first possession in southern Somalia in 1888. In 1924 a Province of Kenya was ceded to Italy by the United Kingdom. (LOC)

In the end, the Somali people were living under the rule of four foreign powers: the British in north central Somalia and in northeast Kenya, the Italians in southern Somalia, the French in the northwest, and the Ethiopians in the Ogaden region.

In the 1940′s there was a rise of Somali nationalism. Somali’s who were working as colonial officials were making most of the efforts towards Somali nationalism. British control of Italian Somalia ended in November 1949, when the area became a U.N. trust territory. Somali nationalists in Italian Somalia received independence on July1, 1960. British Somaliland had gained its independence on June 26 of the same year. It was on July 1, 1960 that the two separate regions united to form the Somali Republic. (US Department of State)

Independence brought not only unity but also democracy. For the next nine years, the citizens of the new republic enjoyed a high level of prosperity. There was a great deal of political freedom. People of all clans were allowed and encouraged to participate in the political arena. During this time of Somali democracy, clan differences were worked out through democratic elections in which the people had a say. (LOC)

Unfortunately, this era pf prosperity did not last too long. There were certain clan loyalties that would not cede to national interests. There was a rising split between the regional interests of the former British-controlled north and the Italian-controlled south. There also was “substantial conflicts between pro-Arab, pan-Somali militants intent on national unification with the Somali-inhabited territories in Ethiopia and Kenya and the ‘modernists,’ who wished to give priority to economic and social development and improving relations with other African countries (US Department of State).”

The roots of the Somali conflicts are found at this portion of Somali history. There was a great rift between the north and the south. The colonial powers of Italy and Britain had left the two regions with their own separate administrative, legal, and education systems. Their elites of both regions had conflicting interests. The southerners believed that they were superior to the northerners because of experience they had gained under the Italian rule. They felt that theirs way of doing things was the better of the two. The northern Somali’s were of a different opinion. The clans of both regions started to build greater animosity towards each other. The nonexistence of clan integration was a key aspect to the demise of Somalia. (LOC)

Another main issue at this time was the lack of enforcement by the Somali government of the Pan-Somali ideology. At the time of Somali independence, there was a vocal movement in the people towards unifying all of Somalia. This specifically meant the unifying of not only the Italian and British areas but also the Somali land in Kenya and Ethiopia. Great discontent grew among the people when the government did not take any action towards that unification.

These issues came to the surface in the form of the assassination of then President Shermaarke by one of his own bodyguards in October of 1969. The assassination turned out to be a blood-less coupe by the army and police. Major General Mohamed Siyaad Barre led the coup and declared himself the new President. He then formed the Supreme Revolutionary Council and arrested the democratic leaders of the nation. The Supreme Revolutionary Council banned political parties, abolished the National Assembly, and suspended the constitution in an attempt to control the people. At the same time, the new government’s goals seemed honorable since they planned to put an end to “tribalism, nepotism, corruption, and misrule (LOC).” The new government also supported the national liberation movements and Somali unification. The country was renamed the Somali Democratic Republic. (LOC)

Siyaad Barre ‘s rise to power was in no way the saving grace of Somalia. It only led to the escalation of the problems only grew for Somalia here. Without a democratic government the Somali people no longer had a say in how they wanted their nation governed. Any opposition to the government was immediately crushed. An example of this is Siyaad Barre ‘s execution of Islamic leaders that were opposed to his laws (LOC).

Siyaad Barre and his administration were pro Somali unification. They needed military and monetary aid to accomplish that goal. This situation led to close ties with the Soviet Union. Since this was the time of the Cold War, the US with drew its aid to Somalia in protest of Somalia’s ties with the Soviet Union. It was under Soviet pressure that Siyaad Barre created the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party to replace the Supreme Revolutionary Council. When Siyaad Barre and his administration felt that they had built enough military strength they invaded Ethiopia to reunite all of Somalia. This occurred in 1977. Unfortunately for Siyaad Barre, the Soviets shifted their support to Ethiopia and in the spring of 1978, and therefore with out the foreign aid Somalia lost all the territory it had won in 1977. (US Department of State)

Abandoned by the Soviets, Siyaad Barre turned towards the West. From 1978 onward, Siyaad Barre held closer ties with Europe, the United States, and with many Arab countries. Most of this support came again simply because of the Cold War.

Siyaad Barre’s government did not enjoy a comfortable level of support during its tenure. Siyaad Barre’s was a paranoid man who did want to lose his power. This led to the imprisonment of his Vice-president in 1970 and the execution of several members of the Supreme Revolutionary Council in 1971 (US Department of State).

Dissidents became bolder after the failed war on Ethiopia in 1978. This came in the form of an unsuccessful coup planned by some Majerteen clan officers. When the planners of the coup were found out, they fled to Ethiopia and formed the first ever-official opposition movement. The name of this organization was the Somali Salvation Democratic Front. Siyaad Barre did not take this opposition lightly. In fact he retaliated against the entire Majerteen clan by imprisoning Majerteen military and civilian leaders and removing many others from their jobs. Thus began a cycle of discrimination, as a government supported policy. Siyaad Barre created an environment in which the only requirement for employment became loyalty to Siyaad Barre. This in turn led to unqualified people holding important government positions. The lack of quality service by the government added to the discontent and inequalities among the people. (LOC)

The growing restlessness in Somalia led to the formation of many other opposition parties based on clan loyalties. Dissidents from the Isaaq clans of northwestern Somalia formed the Somali National Movement in London. They later found a base in Ethiopia from which launched guerrilla raids into Somalia. In 1989, the Hawiye clans in central Somalia formed their own opposition movement called the United Somali Congress. The United Somali Congress also created its own guerrilla bases in Ethiopia. (LOC)

As more and more of the opposition movements became clan based, the government began to increase its retaliations against the clans it felt were hostile to its cause. In doing so, Siyaad Barre’s government missed precious time in which it could have began a peaceful reconciliation processes. The internal war between the government and the opposition movement caused great death and destruction in Somalia. It even created an immense amounts Somali refugees fleeing to neighboring countries. Siyaad Barre created a situation in which the citizens of the nation again returned to its deep division based on clan families.

In attempt to reaffirm his power, Siyaad Barre’s put into effect some reforms. These reforms included allowing a multi-party system, adopting a new constitution, and calling for elections. However, the opposition parties did not fall for this attempt and therefore continued to fight. In early 1992, when the fighting and the chaos got out of control, Siyaad Barre fled the country. (LOC)

Unfortunately Somalia’s suffering did not stop with the ousting of Barre’s dictatorship. The deep rivalry between the clans led to even more turmoil and civil war.

As soon as Siyaad Barre was ousted, one of the factions of the United Somali Congress formed an interim government with out the consent of the other opposition parties. Ali Mahdi Mohammed led this particular faction and it concentrated mostly in the south. The south was farther divided when General Mohammed Farah Aideed challenged the right of interim government. General Mohammed Farah Aideed was a prominent military wing leader in the United Somali Congress. In retaliation for the formation of the governments in the southern region, the Somali National Movement declared the northern region independent and called it the Somaliland Republic. (LOC)

The ongoing civil war that has erupted in Somalia seems to have no end. Even today there is no officially recognized government in Somalia. The civil war has caused the “deaths of several hundred of thousands of Somali’s via violence, disease, and famine(LOC).” The US State Department currently has travel warnings posted against Somalia. The State departments website states “Travel into and within Somalia is extremely dangerous. The Department of State recommends that travelers not go to Somalia (US Department of State).”

Somalia as a nation has suffered through a great deal of devastation. It has been ruled by foreign powers. It has experienced and been failed by democracy. The Somali people have been controlled by socialism and dictatorships. Worst of all it has been failed by its own leaders. The leaders of each clan have pitted its members against each other instead of working together for peace. As a nation, Somalia is more ethnically similar then most African nations and yet the leaders cannot see that.

Clan life constituted the heart of Somali society at the beginning of its history and unfortunately it still is the predominate political force in the country. The key challenge facing modern Somalia today is the same as it was in the past. The question still remains how to unify a country whose people give greater loyalty to their ancestry than to the survival of the nation as a whole. Unfortunately history has shown us that the only time the clans put aside their differences are when they are the aggressors in a conflict against an outside force. Today more then ever, Somalia needs a true leader who can put aside his clan interests for the interests of the nation as a whole. This leader needs to be strong, goal oriented, and of course must be credible among all the clans. Until such a leader emerges Somalia will continue to be plagued with violence, starvation, and death.

Works Cited

“Background Notes: Somalia.” US Department of State. Online. Internet. 15

November 2003. Available http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2863.htm

“CIA: The World FactBook: Somalia.” CIA. Online. Internet. 15 November 2003.

Available http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/so.html

“Somalia: A Country Study.” Library of Congress (LOC). Online. Internet. 15

November 2003. Available http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/sotoc.html

“The American Heritage Dictionary of the American Language.” Bartleby.com. Online.

Internet. Available http://www.bartleby.com/61/